More Details Original Title. Other Editions Friend Reviews. To see what your friends thought of this book, please sign up. To ask other readers questions about C , please sign up. Lists with This Book. Community Reviews. Showing Average rating 4. Rating details. More filters. Sort order. Start your review of C: The Complete Reference. Sep 18, Mohammad Elsheimy rated it liked it Shelves: programming.
Oct 30, Perla C. Aug 31, Samira Peri rated it did not like it. Not actually very good despite people liking it. For some errors see e. Oct 06, Scott rated it really liked it Shelves: computer-science , paperbook , nonfiction. Complete coverage of all components of C programming. Covers universal basics such as variables, arrays, operators, and functions.
Jun 09, Vinicius Menezes rated it liked it. Insightful book on how the language is interwined. Explores almost all aspects of the language taking time to explain everything in detail. Hebert Schildt masterpiece. After this book C-based languages will be a lot easier to learn. Nov 15, Vidyashree added it. Strings Are Containers.
Putting Strings into Other Containers. Final Thoughts on the STL. The Wide-Character String Functions. Wide-Character String Conversion Functions. Wide-Character Array Functions. Several Data Types. The streamsize and streamoff Types. The streampos and wstreampos Types. The openmode Type. The iostate Type. The seekdir type. The failure Class. The Basic Iterator Types. The Low-Level Iterator Classes. The Predefined Iterators. Two Iterator Functions.
Function Objects. The valarray Class. The slice and gslice Classes. The Helper Classes. The Numeric Algorithms. The pair Class. Other Classes of Interest. The Assignment Functions.
Substring Subtraction. The Relational Operators. Miscellaneous String Functions. The Entire StrType Class. Using the StrType Class. Creating and Integrating New Types in General. A Challenge. Parsing Expressions: The Problem. Parsing an Expression. The Parser Class. Dissecting an Expression. A Simple Expression Parser. Understanding the Parser. Adding Variables to the Parser.
Syntax Checking in a Recursive-Descent Parser. Building a Generic Parser. Some Things to Try. Perhaps the most important is that it is now a standardized language. This event marked the end of a very long, and at times contentious, process. Near the end, there was a world-wide, daily dialogue, conducted via e-mail, in which the pros and cons of this or that issue were put forth, and finally resolved. While the process was longer and more exhausting than anyone at first envisioned, the result was worth the trouble.
We now have a standard for what is, without question, the most important programming language in the world. Some are relatively small. Others, like the STL Standard Template Library have ramifications that will affect the course of programming for years to come. The net effect of the additions was that the scope and range of the language were greatly expanded. In fact, the length of the book has nearly doubled! The main reason for this is that the third edition now includes comprehensive coverage of both the standard function library and the standard class library.
Neither of these were sufficiently well defined when the second edition was being prepared to warrant inclusion. Aside from these major additions, the third edition also includes a substantial amount of new material scattered throughout the book.
Also, some fundamental changes to the way new and delete are implemented are described and several new keywords are discussed. Since many readers are already familiar with and proficient in C, discussing the C subset separately in Part One prevents the knowledgeable C programmer from having to "wade through" reams of information he or she already knows.
These include its object-oriented features such as classes, constructors, destructors, and templates. It does assume, however, a reader able to create at least a simple program. However, none of the programs in this book are Windows programs. Instead, they are console-based programs. The reason for this is easy to understand: Windows programs are, by their nature, large and complex. The overhead required to create even a minimal Windows skeletal program is 50 to 70 lines of code.
Put simply, Windows is not an appropriate environment in which to discuss the features of a programming language. However, you can still use a Windows-based compiler to compile the programs in this book because the compiler will automatically create a console session in which to execute your program. Downloading this code prevents you from having to type in the examples.
Here is a partial list of Schildt's other books. To do this in a professional manner, a solid knowledge of C is required. Many readers already know C. The preprocessor is another example. Discussing several of the "C-only" features in Part One prevents them from cluttering up the remainder of the book. If you are particularly interested in C, you will find this book helpful. This chapter presents an overview of the C programming language, its origins, its uses, and its underlying philosophy.
C is the result of a development process that started with an older language called BCPL. B led to the development of C in the s. For many years, the de facto standard for C was the version supplied with the Unix version 5 operating system.
The standardization process took six years much longer than anyone reasonably expected. This does not mean that C is less powerful, harder to use, or less developed than a high-level language such as BASIC or Pascal, nor does it imply that C has the cumbersome nature of assembly language and its associated troubles.
Rather, C is thought of as a middle-level language because it combines the best elements of high-level languages with the control and flexibilityof assembly language. Table shows how C fits into the spectrum of computer languages.
As a middle-level language, C allows the manipulation of bits, bytes, and addresses—the basic elements with which the computer functions.
Despite this fact C code is also very portable. Portability means that it is easy to adapt software written for one type of computer or operating system to another. For example, if you can easily convert a program written for DOS so that it runs under Windows, that program is portable.
C's Place in the World of Programming Languages All high-level programming languages support the concept of data types. A data type defines a set of values that a variable can store along with a set of operations that can be performed on that variable. Common data types are integer, character, and real. Although C has five basic built-in data types, it is not a strongly typed language, as are Pascal and Ada.
C permits almost all type conversions. For example, you may freely intermix character and integer types in an expression. Unlike a high-level language, C performs almost no run-time error checking.
For example, no check is performed to ensure that array boundaries are not overrun. These types of checks are the responsibility of the programmer. In the same vein, C does not demand strict type compatibility between a parameter and an argument. As you may know from your other programming experience, a high-level computer language will typically require that the type of an argument be more or less exactly the same type as the parameter that will receive the argument.
However, such is not the case for C. Instead, C allows an argument to be of any type as long as it can be reasonably converted into the type of the parameter.
Further, C provides all of the automatic conversions to accomplish this. This makes it well suited for system-level programming, where these operations are common. Another important aspect of C is that it has only 32 keywords 27 from the Kernighan and Ritchie de facto standard, and five added by the ANSI standardization committee , which are the commands that make up the C language.
High-level languages typically have several times more keywords. C Is a Structured Language In your previous programming experience, you may have heard the term blockstructured applied to a computer language. Although the term block-structured language does not strictly apply to C, C is commonly referred to simply as a structured language. Since C does not allow the creation of functions within functions, it cannot formally be called block-structured.
The distinguishing feature of a structured language is compartmentalization of code and data. This is the ability of a language to section off and hide from the rest of the program all information and instructions necessary to perform a specific task.
One way that you achieve compartmentalization is by using subroutines that employ local temporary variables. By using local variables, you can write subroutines so that the events that occur within them cause no side effects in other parts of the program.
This capability makes it very easy for programs to share sections of code. If you develop compartmentalized functions, you only need to know what a function does, not how it does it.
Remember, excessive use of global variables variables known throughout the entire program may allow bugs to creep into a program by allowing unwanted side effects. A structured language allows you a variety of programming possibilities. It directly supports several loop constructs, such as while, do-while, and for.
A structured language allows you to place statements anywhere on a line and does not require a strict field concept as some older FORTRANs do. In fact, a mark of an old computer language is that it is nonstructured.
Today, few programmers would consider using a nonstructured language for serious, new programs. Note New versions of many older languages have attempted to add structured elements. BASIC is an example. However, the shortcomings of these languages can never be fully mitigated because they were not designed with structured features from the beginning. C's main structural component is the function—C's stand-alone subroutine. In C, functions are the building blocks in which all program activity occurs.
They let you define and code separately the separate tasks in a program, thus allowing your programs to be modular. After you have created a function, you can rely on it to work properly in various situations without creating side effects in other parts of the program. Being able to create stand-alone functions is extremely critical in larger projects where one programmer's code must not accidentally affect another's.
Another way to structure and compartmentalize code in C is through the use of code blocks. A code block is a logically connected group of program statements that is treated as a unit.
In C, you create a code block by placing a sequence of statements between opening and closing curly braces. These two statements together with the braces represent a code block. They are a logical unit: One of the statements cannot execute without the other executing also. Code blocks allow many algorithms to be implemented with clarity, elegance, and efficiency.
Moreover, they help the programmer better conceptualize the true nature of the algorithm being implemented. C Is a Programmer's Language Surprisingly, not all computer programming languages are for programmers. COBOL was designed not to better the programmer's lot, nor to improve the reliability of the code produced, nor even to improve the speed with which code can be written. Rather, COBOL was designed, in part, to enable nonprogrammers to read and presumably however unlikely to understand the program.
BASIC was created essentially to allow nonprogrammers to program a computer to solve relatively simple problems. In contrast, C was created, influenced, and field-tested by working programmers. The end result is that C gives the programmer what the programmer wants: few restrictions, few complaints, block structures, stand-alone functions, and a compact set of keywords.
The fact that you can often use C in place of assembly language is a major factor in its popularity among programmers. Assembly language uses a symbolic representation of the actual binary code that the computer executes directly.
Each assembly-language operation maps into a single task for the computer to perform. Although assembly language gives programmers the potential to accomplish tasks with maximum flexibility and efficiency, it is notoriously difficult to work with when developing and debugging a program.
Furthermore, since assembly language is unstructured, the final program tends to be spaghetti code—a tangled mess of jumps, calls, and indexes. This lack of structure makes assembly-language programs difficult to read, enhance, and maintain. Perhaps more important, assembly-language routines are not portable between machines with different central processing units CPUs. Initially, C was used for systems programming. A systems program forms a portion of the operating system of the computer or its support utilities.
At the time of its creation, C was a much longed-for, dramatic improvement in programming languages. Such has not been the case. For example, applications such as embedded systems are still typically programmed in C. Second, much of the world still runs on C code, and those programs will continue to be enhanced and maintained. The Form of a C Program Table lists the 32 keywords that, combined with the formal C syntax, form the C programming language. Of these, 27 were defined by the original version of C.
For example, several compilers include keywords to manage the memory organization of the family of processors, to support inter-language programming, and to access interrupts. Also, uppercase and lowercase are different: else is a keyword; ELSE is not.
You may not use a keyword for any other purpose in a program—that is, you may not use it as a variable or function name. All C programs consist of one or more functions. The only function that must be present is called main , which is the first function called when program execution begins.
In well-written C code, main contains what is, in essence, an outline of what the program does. The outline is composed of function calls. Although main is not a keyword, treat it as if it were. For example, don't try to use main as the name of a variable because you will probably confuse the compiler.
The general form of a C program is illustrated in Figure , where f1 through fN represent user-defined functions. As a result, most programs include calls to various functions contained in the standard library. However, your compiler will probably contain many other functions. For example, the standard library does not define any graphics functions, but your compiler will probably include some.
The standard function library is inherited from the C language. The general form of a C program. The class library provides object-oriented routines that your programs may use. It also defines the Standard Template Library STL , which offers off-the-shelf solutions to a variety of programming problems.
However, both the class library and the STL are discussed later in this book. In Part One, only the standard function library is used, since it is the only one that is also defined by C. The implementors of your compiler have already written most of the generalpurpose functions that you will use. When you call a function that is not part of your program, the compiler "remembers" its name. This process is called linking.
Some compilers have their own linker, while others use the standard linker supplied by the operating system. The functions in the library are in relocatable format. This means that the memory addresses for the various machine-code instructions have not been absolutely defined—only offset information has been kept.
When your program links with the functions in the standard library, these memory offsets are used to create the actual addresses used. There are several technical manuals and books that explain this process in more detail. Many of the functions that you will need as you write programs are in the standard library. They act as building blocks that you combine.
If you write a function that you will use again and again, you can place it into a library, too. Separate Compilation Most short programs are completely contained within one source file.
However, as a program's length grows, so does its compile time and long compile times make for short tempers. Once you have compiled all files, they are linked, along with any library routines, to form the complete object code.
The advantage of separate compilation is that if you change the code of one file, you do not need to recompile the entire program. On all but the simplest projects, this saves a substantial amount of time. They are also valid C programs and can be compiled using a C compiler. Thus, if you are called upon to write C programs, the ones shown in Part One qualify as examples.
Traditionally, C programs use the file extension. This is important because the compiler assumes that any program using the. C extension is a C program and that any file using. Unless explicitly noted otherwise, you may use either extension for the programs in Part One.
However, the programs in the rest of this book will require. C extension. Any instances of this will be noted. Expressions are formed from these atomic elements: data and operators.
Data may be represented either by variables or by constants. It also provides a wide variety of operators. T The Five Basic Data Types There are five atomic data types in C: character, integer, floating-point, double floating-point, and valueless char, int, float, double, and void, respectively.
As you will see, all other data types in C are based upon one of these types. The size and range of these data types may vary between processor types and compilers. However, in all cases a character is 1 byte. The size of an integer is usually the same as the word length of the execution environment of the program. For most bit environments, such as DOS or Windows 3. For most bit environments, such as Windows NT, an integer is 32 bits. However, you cannot make assumptions about the size of an integer if you want your programs to be portable to the widest range of environments.
These are discussed in Part Two. The exact format of floating-point values will depend upon how they are implemented. Integers will generally correspond to the natural size of a word on the host computer. Values outside that range may be handled differently by different compilers. The range of float and double will depend upon the method used to represent the floating-point numbers.
Whatever the method, the range is quite large. The minimum number of digits of precision for each floating-point type is shown in Table Instead, it simply states that they must meet certain requirements. Both of these uses are discussed in subsequent chapters. Modifying the Basic Types Except for type void, the basic data types may have various modifiers preceding them. You use a modifier to alter the meaning of the base type to fit various situations more precisely.
You can apply unsigned and signed to characters. You may also apply long to double. Table shows all valid data type combinations, along with their minimal ranges and approximate bit widths. For example, on computers that use two's complement arithmetic which is nearly all , an integer will have a range of at least 32, to —32, The use of signed on integers is allowed, but redundant because the default integer declaration assumes a signed number.
The most important use of signed is to modify char in implementations in which char is unsigned by default. The difference between signed and unsigned integers is in the way that the highorder bit of the integer is interpreted. If you specify a signed integer, the compiler generates code that assumes that the high-order bit of an integer is to be used as a sign flag. If the sign flag is 0, the number is positive; if it is 1, the number is negative.
In general, negative numbers are represented using the two's complement approach, which reverses all bits in the number except the sign flag , adds 1 to this number, and sets the sign flag to 1. Signed integers are important for a great many algorithms, but they only have half the absolute magnitude of their unsigned relatives. However, if you declare this to be an unsigned int, the number becomes 65, when the highorder bit is set to 1.
These identifiers can vary from one to several characters. The first character must be a letter or an underscore, and subsequent characters must be either letters, digits, or underscores.
Here are some correct and incorrect identifier names: Correct Incorrect Count 1count test23 hi! However, not all characters will necessarily be significant. If the identifier will be involved in an external link process, then at least the first six characters will be significant. These identifiers, called external names, include function names and global variables that are shared between files.
If the identifier is not used in an external link process, then at least the first 31 characters will be significant. This type of identifier is called an internal name and includes the names of local variables, for example. In an identifier, upper- and lowercase are treated as distinct. Variables As you probably know, a variable is a named location in memory that is used to hold a value that may be modified by the program.
All variables must be declared before they can be used. Where Variables Are Declared Variables will be declared in three basic places: inside functions, in the definition of function parameters, and outside of all functions. These are local variables, formal parameters, and global variables. Local Variables Variables that are declared inside a function are called local variables. Local variables may be referenced only by statements that are inside the block in which the variables are declared.
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